What Is a VARIABLE? (P.9)

What Is a VARIABLE?

A variable is something that can be changed, such as a characteristic or value. Variables are generally used in psychology experiments to determine if changes to one thing result in changes to another.

What Are Scientific Variables?

In science, a variable is any item, factor, or condition that can be controlled or changed. There are three types of variables in scientific experiments, but we will define them later in the lesson. 

First, let's discuss why scientists use experiments. An experiment is used to determine an association between different variables looking for a cause and effect relationship. A cause and effect relationship means that when you alter one or more variable(s), and measure or observe another variable while keeping everything else the same, there is an effect on the variable that you can measure or observe. This type of experiment is very important because, if there is a cause and effect relationship between variables, then outcomes are predictable and can be used to your advantage, or may be manipulated or changed. More on why this is important a little later in the lesson.

Types of Variables

Now, let's talk about those three types of variables used in scientific experiments. The first variable type is called the independent variable. This variable is the one that is manipulated or changed by the scientist. The second type of variable is the one that is observed or measured in the experiment, and it is known as the dependent variable. You can remember this because the observation or measure of the dependent variable will change as the independent variable is altered. 

Let's use an example that may assist you to understand these two types of variables. You have a plastic container with water inside. You place the container in a metal box and raise the temperature. Here, the temperature is the independent variable, so when you're adjusting the temperature, you're changing the independent variable. The water is the dependent variable. If there is a cause and effect relationship between water and temperature, then the water will change with the temperature change. And, of course, we know that the water will change from liquid into gas or steam with rising temperatures in the box. 

But what about that third type of variable used in scientific experiments? It is the control variable, also known as the constant variable. As the name suggests, it is the variable that the scientist wants to remain the same. Often, there is more than one control or constant variable in a scientific experiment. The scientist will want to observe these control variables as much as the dependent variable. But why is this important? The reason is that if the control variables aren't held constant, the scientist will not know if the independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable or if the change was due to the control variable. 

In our example above, what would be the control variable? The answer is air pressure. The same conditions must exist if we are to be able to predict the change in the water at a certain temperature. At high-level atmospheres, water boils or turns to steam at a lower temperature level then at normal air conditions.

What Is a Hypothesis? (P. 9)

What Exactly Is a Hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, a study designed to look at the relationship between sleep deprivation and test performance might have a hypothesis that states, "This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that sleep deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are not sleep deprived."

Unless you are creating a study that is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your experiment or research.

Remember, a hypothesis does not have to be correct. While the hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to see, the goal of research is to determine whether this guess is right or wrong.

When conducting an experiment, researchers might explore a number of different factors to determine which ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.

In many cases, researchers may find that the results of an experiment do not support the original hypothesis. When writing up these results, the researchers might suggest other options that should be explored in future studies.

How Do Researchers Come Up With a Hypothesis?

There are many different ways to come up with a hypothesis. In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis from a specific theory or build on previous research. For example, prior research has shown that stress can impact the immune system. So a researcher might for a specific hypothesis that: "People with high stress levels will be more likely to contract a common cold after being exposed to the virus than are people who have low stress levels."

In other instances, researchers might look at commonly held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock together" is one example of folk wisdom that a psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to select romantic partners who are similar to them in interests and educational level."

Elements of a Good Hypothesis

When trying to come up with a good hypothesis for your own psychology research or experiments, ask yourself the following questions:

• Is your hypothesis based on your research of a topic?
• Can your hypothesis be tested?
• Does your hypothesis include independent and dependent variables?

Before you come up with a specific hypothesis, spend some time doing background research on your topic. Once you have completed a literature review, start thinking of potential questions you still have. Pay attention to the discussion section in the journal articles you read. Many authors will suggest questions that still need to be explored.

Examples of a Good Hypothesis

A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens} then {this will happen}." One way to structure your hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the dependent variable if you make changes to the independent variable.

The basic format might be:

"If {these changes are made to a certain independent variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific dependent variable}."

A few examples:

• "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math exam than students who do not eat breakfast."
• "Students who experience test anxiety prior to an English exam will get higher scores than students who do not experience test anxiety."
• "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do not talk on the phone."

Checklist

• Does your hypothesis focus on something that you can actually test?
• Does your hypothesis include both an independent and dependent variable?
• Can you manipulate the variables?
• Can your hypothesis be tested without violating ethical standards?

Meaning/Importance of BUSINESS POLICY (Paper 2/11)

Meaning of BUSINESS POLICY

Business policies are the guidelines developed by an organization to govern its actions. They define the limits within which decisions must be made. Business policy also deals with acquisition of resources with which organizational goals can be achieved. Business policy is the study of the roles and responsibilities of top level management, the significant issues affecting organizational success and the decisions affecting organization in long-run.

Features of Business Policy

An effective business policy must have the following features-

1. Specific- Policy should be specific/definite. If it is uncertain, then the implementation will become difficult.
2. Clear- Policy must be unambiguous. It should avoid use of jargons and connotations. There should be no misunderstandings in following the policy. 

3. Reliable/Uniform- Policy must be uniform enough so that it can be efficiently followed by the subordinates.

4. Appropriate- Policy should be appropriate to the present organizational goal.

5. Simple- A policy should be simple and easily understood by all in the organization.

6. Inclusive/Comprehensive- In order to have a wide scope, a policy must be comprehensive.

7. Flexible- Policy should be flexible in operation/application. This does not imply that a policy should be altered always, but it should be wide in scope so as to ensure that the line managers use them in repetitive/routine scenarios.

8. Stable- Policy should be stable else it will lead to indecisiveness and uncertainty in minds of those who look into it for guidance.

Importance of Business Policies

A company operates consistently, both internally and externally when the policies are established. Business policies should be set up before hiring the first employee in the organization. It deals with the constraints of real-life business.

It is important to formulate policies to achieve the organizational objectives. The policies are articulated by the management. Policies serve as a guidance to administer activities that are repetitive in nature. It channels the thinking and action in decision making. It is a mechanism adopted by the top management to ensure that the activities are performed in the desired way. The complete process of management is organized by business policies.

Business policies are important due to the following reasons:

• Coordination Reliable policies coordinate the purpose by focusing on organizational activities. This helps in ensuring uniformity of action throughout the organization. Policies encourage cooperation and promote initiative.
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• Quick decisions. Policies help subordinates to take prompt action and quick decisions. They demarcate the section within which decisions are to be taken. They help subordinates to take decisions with confidence without consulting their superiors every time. Every policy is a guide to activities that should be followed in a particular situation. It saves time by predicting frequent problems and providing ways to solve them.
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• Effective control. Policies provide logical basis for assessing performance. They ensure that the activities are synchronized with the objectives of the organization. It prevents divergence from the planned course of action. The management tends to deviate from the objective if policies are not defined precisely. This affects the overall efficiency of the organization. Policies are derived objectives and provide the outline for procedures.
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• Decentralization. Well defined policies help in decentralization as the executive roles and responsibility are clearly identified. Authority is delegated to the executives who refer the policies to work efficiently. The required managerial procedures can be derived from the given policies. Policies provide guidelines to the executives to help them in determining the suitable actions which are within the limits of the stated policies. Policies contribute in building coordination in larger organisations.

Difference between Policy and Strategy

Difference between Policy and Strategy

The term “policy” should not be considered as synonymous to the term “strategy”. The difference between policy and strategy can be summarized as follows-

1. Policy is a blueprint of the organizational activities which are repetitive/routine in nature. While strategy is concerned with those organizational decisions which have not been dealt/faced before in same form.
2. Policy formulation is responsibility of top level management. While strategy formulation is basically done by middle level management.
3. Policy deals with routine/daily activities essential for effective and efficient running of an organization. While strategy deals with strategic decisions.
4. Policy is concerned with both thought and actions. While strategy is concerned mostly with action.
5. A policy is what is, or what is not done. While a strategy is the methodology used to achieve a target as prescribed by a policy.